Christology

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The history of Christology over the first seven centuries of Church history is a fascinating and complex topic that involves many debates, controversies, and developments. Here is a brief overview of some of the main events and issues that shaped the Christian understanding of Jesus Christ during this period:

• The earliest Christological reflection focused on the titles given to Jesus in the apostolic writings. Those titles, some of which were used more widely than others, derived in one way or another from the Hebrew Scriptures. Son of Man, Son of God, and Messiah were three terms prominently employed in the Gospel narratives1 They expressed the belief that Jesus was the fulfilment of the prophecies and expectations of Israel, and that he had a unique relationship with God. Other titles, such as Lord, Saviour, and Word, reflected the influence of the Hellenistic culture and language, and emphasized the universal significance and authority of Jesus2 These titles also implied a certain tension or paradox between the human and divine aspects of Jesus, which would become a major source of Christological debate in later centuries.
• The first major Christological controversy arose in the second century, when various groups challenged the orthodox view of Jesus as both human and divine. One such group was the Ebionites, who denied the virgin birth and regarded Jesus as a mere human prophet who was adopted by God at his baptism. Another group was the Docetists, who denied the reality of Jesus’ human nature and suffering, and regarded him as a divine being who only appeared to be human. A third group was the Gnostics, who held a dualistic worldview that contrasted the evil material world with the good spiritual realm, and regarded Jesus as a divine messenger who brought secret knowledge (gnosis) to liberate humanity from ignorance and bondage3 These groups were opposed by the early Church Fathers, such as Ignatius of Antioch, Irenaeus of Lyon, and Tertullian of Carthage, who defended the apostolic teaching that Jesus was fully human and fully divine, and that he died and rose again for the salvation of all people3
• The second major Christological controversy arose in the fourth century, when Arius, a presbyter from Alexandria, taught that Jesus was not co-eternal or co-equal with God the Father, but was a created being who had a beginning in time. Arius argued that there was only one true God, who was transcendent and immutable, and that Jesus was a subordinate creature who was granted divine status and power by God’s grace. Arius also denied that Jesus had a human soul, but only a human body animated by the divine Word3 Arius’ views sparked a heated debate that divided the Christian world into two camps: those who followed Arius (called Arians) and those who opposed him (called Athanasians). The latter group was led by Athanasius, the bishop of Alexandria, who argued that Jesus was homoousios (of the same substance) with God the Father, and that he had a complete human nature as well as a divine nature. Athanasius claimed that only by affirming both natures could one uphold the true divinity and true humanity of Jesus, and thus his role as the mediator between God and humanity3 The controversy was resolved by the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, which condemned Arius’ teachings as heretical and adopted a creed that affirmed that Jesus was “begotten not made” and “of one substance with the Father”2
• The third major Christological controversy arose in the fifth century, when Nestorius, the patriarch of Constantinople, objected to the use of the term Theotokos (God-bearer) for Mary, the mother of Jesus. Nestorius argued that Mary gave birth only to the human nature of Jesus, not to his divine nature, and that it was inappropriate to call her the mother of God. Nestorius also emphasized the distinction between the two natures of Christ, which he regarded as united only by will and affection, not by essence or personhood. Nestorius’ views were challenged by Cyril, the bishop of Alexandria, who insisted that Mary was indeed Theotokos , because she gave birth to Jesus as one person who had two natures inseparably united in his single personhood (hypostasis). Cyril argued that Nestorius’ views implied a division or separation between the two natures of the person, the Lord, Jesus Christ. Nestorius' view was rejected as heresy.